Was John Locke Again Constitutional Government?

17

Constitutional Government

Affiliate 17|Certificate 5

John Locke, Second Treatise, §§ 89--94, 134--42, 212

1689

89. Where-ever therefore any number of Men are so united into one Society, as to quit every one his Executive Ability of the Law of Nature, and to resign it to the publick, there and at that place merely is a Political, or Civil Guild. And this is done where-ever whatever number of Men, in the state of Nature, enter into Society to make one People, ane Body Politick nether 1 Supreme Government, or else when any ane joyns himself to, and incorporates with any Authorities already made. For hereby he authorizes the Society, or which is all one, the Legislative thereof to make Laws for him as the publick good of the Gild shall require; to the Execution whereof, his own assistance (as to his own Decrees) is due. And this puts Men out of a State of Nature into that of a Commonwealth, past setting upwards a Guess on Globe, with Authority to make up one's mind all the Controversies, and redress the Injuries, that may happen to whatever Member of the Democracy; which Judge is the Legislative, or Magistrates appointed by it. And where-e'er there are any number of Men, still associated, that have no such decisive power to appeal to, there they are still in the land of Nature.

90. Hence it is axiomatic, that Accented Monarchy, which by some Men is counted the merely Regime in the World, is indeed inconsistent with Civil Society, and then can be no Class of Civil Government at all. For the end of Civil Club, being to avert, and remedy those inconveniencies of the State of Nature, which necessarily follow from every Man'southward existence Judge in his own Instance, past setting upwards a known Say-so, to which every one of that Society may Appeal upon any Injury received, or Controversie that may arise, and which every one of the Society ought to obey; where-e'er any persons are, who have not such an Authority to Appeal to, for the conclusion of any departure between them, there those persons are still in the state of Nature. Then is every Absolute Prince in respect of those who are under his Dominion.

91. For he being suppos'd to accept all, both Legislative and Executive Power in himself alone, there is no Judge to exist plant, no Appeal lies open to any 1, who may fairly, and indifferently, and with Authority decide, and from whose conclusion relief and redress may be expected of whatsoever Injury or Inconveniency, that may be suffered from the Prince or by his Order: So that such a Human being, however intitled, Czar, or Grand Signior, or how you please, is as much in the state of Nature, with all nether his Dominion, equally he is with the residuum of Mankind. For where-ever any two Men are, who accept no standing Dominion, and common Estimate to Appeal to on Earth for the determination of Controversies of Right between them, at that place they are still in the state of Nature, and under all the inconveniencies of it,i with only this woful difference to the Subject, or rather Slave of an Accented Prince: That whereas, in the ordinary State of Nature, he has a liberty to judge of his Right, and according to the best of his Ability, to maintain it; at present whenever his Holding is invaded by the Will and Club of his Monarch, he has not only no Appeal, as those in Society ought to have, but as if he were degraded from the common state of Rational Creatures, is denied a freedom to guess of, or to defend his Correct, so is exposed to all the Misery and Inconveniencies that a Human being can fearfulness from one, who being in the unrestrained state of Nature, is yet corrupted with Flattery, and armed with Power.

92. For he that thinks absolute Ability purifies Mens Bloods, and corrects the baseness of Humane Nature, demand read but the History of this, or any other Age to be convinced of the contrary. He that would have been insolent and injurious in the Wood of America, would not probably be much better in a Throne; where perhaps Learning and Religion shall exist plant out to justifie all, that he shall do to his Subjects, and the Sword soon silence all those that dare question it. For what the Protection of Absolute Monarchy is, what kind of Fathers of their Countries it makes Princes to exist, and to what a degree of Happiness and Security it carries Civil Order where this sort of Government is grown to perfection, he that volition expect into the belatedly Relation of Ceylon, may easily see.

93. In Absolute Monarchies indeed, too as other Governments of the Earth, the Subjects have an Appeal to the Constabulary, and Judges to decide any Controversies, and restrain whatever Violence that may happen betwixt the Subjects themselves, ane amongst another. This every one thinks necessary, and believes he deserves to be thought a declared Enemy to Society and Mankind, who should get about to have it away. But whether this be from a true Love of Mankind and Society, and such a Charity as we owe all 1 to another, there is reason to doubt. For this is no more, than what every Human being who loves his own Power, Profit, or Greatness, may, and naturally must exercise, keep those Animals from hurting or destroying one another who labour and drudge merely for his Pleasure and Advantage, and so are taken care of, not out of whatever Honey the Primary has for them, only Dear of himself, and the Profit they bring him. For if it be asked, what Security, what Fence is at that place in such a State, confronting the Violence and Oppression of this Absolute Ruler? The very Question can scarce be born. They are set up to tell you, that it deserves Death merely to ask later on Safety. Betwist Subject and Bailiwick, they will grant, in that location must be Measures, Laws, and Judges, for their mutual Peace and Security: Only as for the Ruler, he ought to be Absolute, and is to a higher place all such Circumstances: because he has Power to practice more injure and incorrect, 'tis correct when he does it. To ask how you may be guarded from harm, or injury on that side where the strongest hand is to do it, is presently the Voice of Faction and Rebellion. Every bit if when Men quitting the Country of Nature entered into Order, they agreed that all of them simply one, should be under the restraint of Laws, but that he should however retain all the Liberty of the Land of Nature, increased with Ability, and made licentious by Dispensation. This is to think that Men are so foolish that they accept care to avoid what Mischiefs may be washed them past Pole-Cats, or Foxes, but are content, nay think it Safety, to be devoured past Lions.

94. Merely whatever Flatterers may talk to amuze Peoples Understandings, information technology hinders not Men, from feeling: and when they perceive, that any Man, in what Station soever, is out of the Bounds of the Civil Society which they are of; and that they have no Entreatment on World against whatever harm they may receive from him, they are apt to call up themselves in the state of Nature, in respect of him, whom they find to be so; and to take care as presently as they tin, to have that Safety and Security in Ceremonious Social club, for which it was first instituted, and for which only they entered into it. And therefore, though perhaps at kickoff, (as shall exist shewed more at large hereafter in the following function of this Discourse) some i skilful and excellent Man, having got a Preheminency amongst the residuum, had this Deference paid to his Goodness and Vertue, equally to a kind of Natural Authority, that the principal Dominion, with Arbitration of their differences, past a tacit Consent devolved into his hands, without any other caution, simply the assurance they had of his Uprightness and Wisdom: withal when time, giving Dominance, and (as some Men would perswade the states) Sacredness to Customs, which the negligent, and unforeseeing Innocence of the starting time Ages began, had brought in Successors of another Stamp, the People finding their Properties not secure under the Government, as then information technology was, (whereas Government has no other finish only the preservation of Property) could never be safe nor at residue, nor recollect themselves in Ceremonious Society, till the Legislature was placed in collective Bodies of Men, call them Senate, Parliament, or what you please.2 By which means every single person became subject area, equally with other the meanest Men, to those Laws, which he himself, as function of the Legislative had established: nor could any ane, by his own Authority, avoid the force of the Law, when once made, nor by any pretence of Superiority, plead exemption, thereby to License his ain, or the Miscarriages of any of his Dependants. No Human being in Civil Social club tin can be exempted from the Laws of information technology. For if whatsoever Man may do, what he thinks fit, and there be no Appeal on Earth, for Redress or Security against any damage he shall do; I ask, Whether he be not perfectly still in the State of Nature, and and then tin exist no part or Member of that Ceremonious Society: unless any one will say, the Land of Nature and Civil Society are one and the same thing, which I have never yet plant any one so groovy a Patron of Anarchy as to affirm.

Chap. XI. Of the Extent of the Legislative Power.

134. The bang-up end of Mens entring into Club, existence the enjoyment of their Properties in Peace and Safety, and the nifty instrument and means of that being the Laws establish'd in that Order; the first and fundamental positive Law of all Commonwealths, is the establishing of the Legislative Power; as the first and primal natural Police, which is to govern fifty-fifty the Legislative it self, is the preservation of the Club, and (as far as volition consist with the publick good) of every person in it. This Legislative is not only the supream ability of the Commonwealth, but sacred and unalterable in the easily where the Customs take once placed it; nor tin any Edict of any Body else, in what Form soever conceived, or by what Ability soever backed, have the force and obligation of a Law, which has not its Sanction from that Legislative, which the publick has called and appointed. For without this the Constabulary could not accept that, which is absolutely necessary to its being a Law, the consent of the Club, over whom no Body can have a power to brand Laws, but by their own consent,3 and by Authority received from them; and therefore all the Obedience, which by the most solemn Ties any one can be obliged to pay, ultimately terminates in this Supream Power, and is directed by those Laws which it enacts: nor can whatever Oaths to whatever Strange Power whatsoever, or any Domestick Subordinate Power, belch whatsoever Member of the Gild from his Obedience to the Legislative, acting pursuant to their trust, nor oblige him to whatsoever Obedience contrary to the Laws then enacted, or farther than they practice permit; information technology being ridiculous to imagine i tin exist tied ultimately to obey any Power in the Society, which is not the Supream.

135. Though the Legislative, whether placed in 1 or more than, whether it be ever in being, or just past intervals, tho' it exist the Supream Ability in every Mutual-wealth; yet,

Showtime, It is non, nor can perhaps be admittedly Arbitrary over the Lives and Fortunes of the People. For it being but the joynt power of every Member of the Society given up to that Person, or Associates, which is Legislator, it can exist no more than those persons had in a Country of Nature before they enter'd into Lodge, and gave up to the Community. For no Body tin transfer to another more than ability than he has in himself; and no Body has an absolute Arbitrary Ability over himself, or over whatever other, to destroy his own Life, or take away the Life or Property of another. A Man, as has been proved, cannot bailiwick himself to the Capricious Power of another; and having in the Country of Nature no Arbitrary Ability over the Life, Liberty, or Possession of another, but simply so much as the Law of Nature gave him for the preservation of himself, and the residuum of Flesh; this is all he doth, or tin can give up to the Common-wealth, and by it to the Legislative Power, and so that the Legislative can have no more than this. Their Power in the utmost Bounds of it, is express to the publick good of the Society. It is a Power, that hath no other end just preservation, and therefore tin never have a right to destroy, enslave, or designedly to impoverish the Subjects.iv The Obligations of the Constabulary of Nature, cease non in Society merely merely in many Cases are drawn closer, and take by Humane Laws known Penalties annexed to them, to inforce their ascertainment. Thus the Law of Nature stands as an Eternal Rule to all Men, Legislators as well every bit others. The Rules that they make for other Mens Actions, must, besides as their own and other Mens Actions, be conformable to the Law of Nature, i.e. to the Will of God, of which that is a Annunciation, and the primal Law of Nature being the preservation of Mankind, no Humane Sanction can be practiced, or valid confronting it.

Laws therefore humane, of what kind soever, are available by consent. Ibid.

136. Secondly, The Legislative, or Supream Authorization, cannot assume to its self a power to Dominion by extemporary Arbitrary Decrees,v but is bound to dispense Justice, and decide the Rights of the Subject past promulgated standing Laws, and known Authoris'd Judges. For the Constabulary of Nature being unwritten, and so no where to exist found but in the minds of Men, they who through Passion or Interest shall miscite, or misapply it, cannot so hands exist convinced of their mistake where at that place is no establish'd Approximate: And then information technology serves not, as it ought, to make up one's mind the Rights, and fence the Properties of those that live under information technology, peculiarly where every i is Judge, Interpreter, and Executioner of it as well, and that in his ain Example: And he that has correct on his side, having ordinarily but his own single strength, hath not strength enough to defend himself from Injuries, or to punish Delinquents. To avoid these Inconveniencies which disorder Mens Properties in the country of Nature, Men unite into Societies, that they may have the united strength of the whole Society to secure and defend their Backdrop, and may take standing Rules to bound information technology, by which every i may know what is his. To this end it is that Men give upwardly all their Natural Ability to the Lodge which they enter into, and the Community put the Legislative Power into such hands as they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be govern'd by declared Laws, or else their Peace, Quiet, and Property volition nonetheless be at the same uncertainty, as information technology was in the land of Nature.

137. Accented Capricious Power, or Governing without settled continuing Laws, can neither of them consist with the ends of Social club and Government, which Men would non quit the freedom of the state of Nature for, and tie themselves up nether, were it not to preserve their Lives, Liberties and Fortunes; and by stated Rules of Right and Property to secure their Peace and Quiet. It cannot be supposed that they should intend, had they a power so to practice, to give to any one, or more, an absolute Capricious Power over their Persons and Estates, and put a force into the Magistrates paw to execute his unlimited Will arbitrarily upon them: This were to put themselves into a worse status than the state of Nature, wherein they had a Liberty to defend their Correct confronting the Injuries of others, and were upon equal terms of strength to maintain it, whether invaded by a unmarried Homo, or many in Combination. Whereas by supposing they accept given up themselves to the accented Arbitrary Power and will of a Legislator, they accept disarmed themselves, and armed him, to brand a casualty of them when he pleases. He being in a much worse condition who is exposed to the Arbitrary Power of i Homo, who has the Control of 100000. than he that is expos'd to the Arbitrary Ability of 100000. single Men: no Body existence secure, that his Volition, who has such a Command, is better, than that of other Men, though his Force be 100000. times stronger. And therefore whatever Form the Common-wealth is under, the Ruling Ability ought to govern by declared and received Laws, and not past extemporary Dictates and undetermined Resolutions. For then Mankind will be in a far worse condition, than in the Land of Nature, if they shall have armed one or a few Men with the joynt power of a Multitude, to force them to obey at pleasure the exorbitant and unlimited Decrees of their sudden thoughts, or unrestrain'd, and till that moment unknown Wills without having any measures set downward which may guide and justifie their actions. For all the power the Authorities has, being only for the good of the Club, equally it ought not to be Arbitrary and at Pleasure, and so it ought to exist exercised by established and promulgated Laws: that both the People may know their Duty, and exist rubber and secure within the limits of the Police, and the Rulers as well kept within their due bounds, and not to be tempted, by the Ability they have in their hands, to imploy information technology to such purposes, and by such measures, as they would non have known, and own non willingly.

138. Thirdly, The Supream Power cannot take from whatsoever Man any office of his Property without his ain consent. For the preservation of Property being the terminate of Government, and that for which Men enter into Society, information technology necessarily supposes and requires, that the People should have Property, without which they must be suppos'd to lose that by entring into Society, which was the end for which they entered into it, too gross an applesauce for whatsoever Man to own. Men therefore in Guild having Property, they have such a right to the goods, which by the Police force of the Community are theirs, that no Trunk hath a correct to have their substance, or whatever role of it from them, without their own consent; without this, they have no Belongings at all. For I take truly no Property in that, which another can by right take from me, when he pleases, confronting my consent. Hence information technology is a mistake to call up, that the Supream or Legislative Power of any Commonwealth, tin practise what it volition, and dispose of the Estates of the Bailiwick arbitrarily, or take any office of them at pleasure. This is not much to be fearfulness'd in Governments where the Legislative consists, wholly or in function, in Assemblies which are variable, whose Members upon the Dissolution of the Associates, are Subjects under the common Laws of their Country, equally with the rest. Simply in Governments, where the Legislative is in one lasting Assembly ever in being, or in 1 Human being, as in Absolute Monarchies, there is danger still, that they volition think themselves to have a distinct interest, from the balance of the Community; and and so volition be apt to increment their own Riches and Power, by taking, what they think fit, from the People. For a Man's Property is not at all secure, though there exist good and equitable Laws to set the bounds of information technology, betwixt him and his Swain Subjects, if he who commands those Subjects, have Ability to take from whatsoever individual Man, what part he pleases of his Property, and use and dispose of it as he thinks good.

139. Just Government into any easily it is put, existence as I have before shew'd, intrusted with this condition, and for this end, that Men might have and secure their Properties, the Prince or Senate, even so it may have power to brand Laws for the regulating of Property betwixt the Subjects one among another, nonetheless tin never take a Power to take to themselves the whole or any part of the Subjects Property, without their own consent. For this would be in consequence to leave them no Holding at all. And to let u.s.a. see, that even accented Power, where it is necessary, is non Arbitrary by being absolute, but is still limited past that reason, and confined to those ends, which required it in some Cases to be absolute, nosotros need look no farther than the common practice of Martial Field of study. For the Preservation of the Army, and in it of the whole Commonwealth, requires an absolute Obedience to the Command of every Superiour Officer, and information technology is justly Death to disobey or dispute the about unsafe or unreasonable of them: just even so we see, that neither the Serjeant, that could command a Souldier to march up to the mouth of a Cannon, or stand in a Breach, where he is almost sure to perish, can control that Soldier to requite him one penny of his Money; nor the General, that can condemn him to Death for deserting his Postal service, or for not obeying the most drastic Orders, can yet with all his absolute Power of Life and Decease, dispose of 1 Farthing of that Soldiers Estate, or seize 1 jot of his Appurtenances; whom even so he can command whatever thing, and hang for the least Disobedience. Considering such a blind Obedience is necessary to that end for which the Commander has his Power, viz. the preservation of the rest; just the disposing of his Goods has goose egg to do with it.

140. 'Tis true, Governments cannot exist supported without bully Accuse, and 'tis fit every one who enjoys his share of the Protection, should pay out of his Estate his proportion for the maintenance of information technology. Simply still it must be with his own Consent, i.east. the Consent of the Majority, giving information technology either by themselves, or their Representatives chosen by them. For if any one shall claim a Power to lay and levy Taxes on the People, by his own Potency, and without such consent of the People, he thereby invades the Cardinal Law of Property, and subverts the end of Government. For what property accept I in that which some other may by right have, when he pleases to himself?

141. Fourthly, The Legislative cannot transfer the Ability of Making Laws to any other easily. For it beingness just a delegated Power from the People, they, who have it, cannot pass information technology over to others. The People alone can appoint the Form of the Commonwealth, which is by Constituting the Legislative, and appointing in whose hands that shall be. And when the People have said, We volition submit to rules, and be govern'd past Laws made by such Men, and in such Forms, no Torso else tin say other Men shall make Laws for them; nor can the people be bound by whatsoever Laws but such as are Enacted by those, whom they have Called, and Authorised to make Laws for them. The power of the Legislative beingness derived from the People by a positive voluntary Grant and Institution, can be no other, than what that positive Grant conveyed, which existence only to make Laws, and not to make Legislators, the Legislative can have no ability to transfer their Authorization of making Laws, and place information technology in other hands.

142. These are the Premises which the trust that is put in them by Society, and the Law of God and Nature, accept set to the Legislative Power of every Democracy, in all Forms of Authorities.

First, They are to govern past promulgated institute'd Laws, not to be varied in particular Cases, but to have i Rule for Rich and Poor, for the Favourite at Courtroom, and the Country Man at Plough.

Secondly, These Laws also ought to exist designed for no other end ultimately but the expert of the People.

Thirdly, they must not raise Taxes on the Property of the People, without the Consent of the People, given by themselves, or their Deputies. And this properly concerns only such Governments where the Legislative is always in being, or at least where the People accept not reserv'd any part of the Legislative to Deputies, to be from time to time called past themselves.

Fourthly, The Legislative neither must nor can transfer the Power of making Laws to any Body else, or place it any where simply where the People have.

. . . . .

212. Besides this over-turning from without, Governments are dissolved from inside.

First, When the Legislative is contradistinct. Civil Guild being a Land of Peace, amongst those who are of it, from whom the State of War is excluded by the Umpirage, which they take provided in their Legislative, for the ending all Differences, that may arise amongst any of them, 'tis in their Legislative, that the Members of a Commonwealth are united, and combined together into ane coherent living Torso. This is the Soul that gives Form, Life, and Unity to the Commonwealth: From hence the several Members take their common Influence, Sympathy, and Connectedness: And therefore when the Legislative is broken, or dissolved, Dissolution and Death follows. For the Essence and Matrimony of the Society consisting in having 1 Volition, the Legislative, when once established by the Majority, has the declaring, and equally information technology were keeping of that Will. The Constitution of the Legislative is the first and central Act of Society, whereby provision is made for the Continuation of their Union, under the Direction of Persons, and Bonds of Laws made by persons authorized thereunto, by the Consent and Appointment of the People, without which no one Man, or number of Men, amid them, tin accept Authority of making Laws, that shall exist bounden to the rest. When any one, or more, shall take upon them to make Laws, whom the People have not appointed and so to practice, they brand Laws without Authorisation, which the People are not therefore leap to obey; by which means they come again to be out of subjection, and may constitute to themselves a new Legislative, every bit they call up best, beingness in full liberty to resist the force of those, who without Authority would impose whatsoever matter upon them. Every one is at the disposure of his own Will, when those who had past the delegation of the Society, the declaring of the publick Will, are excluded from it, and others usurp the place who have no such Say-so or Delegation.

1. To have away all such mutual Grievances, Injuries and Wrongs, i.east. such every bit nourish Men in the State of Nature. In that location was no way but just by growing into Composition and Agreement amongst themselves, by ordaining some kind of Government publick, and by yielding themselves field of study thereunto, that unto whom they granted Say-so to Rule and Govern, past them the Peace, Serenity, and happy Estate of the rest might exist procured. Men always knew that where Force and Injury was offered, they might be Defenders of themselves; they knew that still Men may seek their own Article; yet if this were done with Injury unto others, information technology was not to be suffered, but past all Men, and all good Means to be withstood. Finally, they knew that no Man might in reason have upon him to determine his ain Right, and according to his own Determination proceed in maintenance thereof, in as much equally every Man is towards himself, and them whom he greatly affects, partial; and therefore that Strifes and Troubles should be endless, except they gave their common Consent, all to exist ordered by some, whom they should agree upon, without which Consent in that location would exist no reason that any Man should take upon him to be Lord or Judge over some other. Hooker's Eccl. Political leader. I. 1. Sect. ten.
2. At the kickoff, when some certain kind of Regiment was once appointed, it may exist that nothing was then further thought upon for the way of governing, merely all permitted unto their Wisdom and Discretion, which were to Rule, till by experience they establish this for all parts very inconvenient, so equally the matter which they had devised for a Remedy, did indeed merely increase the Sore, which it should have cured. They saw, that to live by i Man's Will, became the cause of all Mens misery . This constrained them to come unto Laws wherein all Men might see their Duty beforehand, and know the Penalties of transgressing them. Hooker's Eccl. Politician. I. 1. Sect. ten.
3. The lawful Power of making Laws to Command whole Politick Societies of Men belonging so properly unto the aforementioned intire Societies, that for whatsoever Prince or Potentate of what kind soever upon Globe, to exercise the same of himself, and not past limited Commission immediately and personally received from God, or else by Authority derived at the starting time from their consent, upon whose persons they impose Laws, it is no better than meer Tyranny. Laws they are not therefore which publick Approbation hath non made and so. Hooker's Eccl. Politico. I. 1. Sect. 10. Of this bespeak therefore we are to note, that sith Men naturally have no total and perfect Power to Command whole Politick Multitudes of Men, therefore utterly without our Consent, we could in such sort be at no Mans Commandment living. And to be allowable we exercise consent when that Society, whereof we be a part, hath at any time before consented, without revoking the same later by the like universal understanding.
   Laws therefore humane, of what kind soever, are available by consent. Ibid.
4. Two Foundations there are which bear upwards publick Societies, the ane a natural inclination, whereby all Men desire sociable Life and Fellowship; the other an Order, expressly or secretly agreed upon, touching the manner of their union in living together; the latter is that which we call the Law of a Mutual-weal, the very Soul of a Politick Body, the parts whereof are by Law animated, held together, and ready on work in such deportment as the mutual adept requireth. Laws politick, ordain'd for external order and regiment amid Men, are never framed as they should be, unless presuming the will of Man to exist inwardly obstinate, rebellious, and averse from all Obedience to the sacred Laws of his Nature; in a word, unless presuming Man to be in regard of his depraved Mind, lilliputian ameliorate than a wild Beast, they practise accordingly provide nevertheless, so to frame his outward Actions, that they be no hindrance unto the common skilful, for which Societies are instituted. Unless they do this they are not perfect. Hooker'southward Eccl. Politician. I. 1. Sect. ten.
5. Humane Laws are measures in respect of Men, whose actions they must direct, howbeit such measures they are as accept likewise their college Rules to be measured by, which Rules are ii, the Police of God, and the Police force of Nature; so that Laws Humane must exist fabricated according to the full general Laws of Nature, and without contradiction to any positive Constabulary of Scripture, otherwise they are ill fabricated, Ibid. I. iii. Sect. 9.
   To constrain Men to any thing inconvenient doth seem unreasonable. Ibid. I. i. Sect. 10.

The Founders' Constitution
Volume one, Chapter 17, Certificate 5
http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch17s5.html
The University of Chicago Press

Locke, John. 2 Treatises of Authorities. Edited by Peter Laslett. New York: Mentor Books, New American Library, 1965. See also: Montuori

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Source: https://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch17s5.html

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